Agitated or combative patient: Difference between revisions
 
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==Background==
==Background==
 
*'''Violence may occur without warning'''
* '''Violence may occur without warning'''
*Positive predictors of violence
* Positive predictors of violence
**Male gender
** Male gender
**History of violence
** History of violence
**Substance abuse
** Substance abuse
**Psychiatric illness
** Psychiatric illness
***[[Schizophrenia]], Psychotic [[depression]]
*** Schizophrenia, Psychotic depression
***[[Personality disorders]] - (e.g. antisocial personality disorder patients may lack remorse for violent actions_
*** Personality disorders - lack remorse for violent actions
***[[bipolar disorder|Mania]] - unpredictable because of emotional lability
*** Mania - unpredictable because of emotional lability
**Increased '''waiting''' duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
** Increased '''waiting''' duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
*Factors that '''do not''' predict violence
* Factors that '''do not''' predict violence
**Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
** Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
**Evaluation by psychiatrist, '''regardless of experience'''
** Evaluation by psychiatrist, '''regardless of experience'''


==Clinical Features==
==Clinical Features==
 
*Escalation behaviors may include progression through:
* Escalation behaviors include progression through:
**Anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
** anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence


==Differential Diagnosis==
==Differential Diagnosis==
 
''FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)''
* FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)
*Psychiatric
*Psychiatric
**Schizophrenia
**[[Schizophrenia]], paranoid ideation, catatonic excitement
**Paranoid ideation
**[[Bipolar disorder|Mania]]
**Catatonic excitement
**Personality disorders ([[borderline personality disorder|borderline]], [[antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]])
**Mania
**Delusional [[depression]]
**Personality disorders (Borderline, Antisocial)
**Delusional depression
**Post-traumatic stress disorder
**Post-traumatic stress disorder
**Decompensating obsessive-compulsive disorders
**Decompensating obsessive-compulsive disorders
**Homosexual panic
*Situational Frustration
*Situational Frustration
**Mutual hostility
**Mutual hostility
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**Violence with no associated medical or psychiatric explanation
**Violence with no associated medical or psychiatric explanation
*Organic Diseases
*Organic Diseases
**Trauma (head)
**[[Head trauma]]
**Hypoxia
**[[Hypoxia]]
**Hypoglycemia or Hyperglycemia
**[[Hypoglycemia]] or [[hyperglycemia]]
**Electrolyte abnormality
**[[Electrolyte abnormality]]
**Infection
**Infection
***CNS infection (eg, herpes encephalitis)
***CNS infection (eg, herpes [[encephalitis]])
***AIDS
***[[AIDS]]
**Endocrine disorder
**Endocrine disorder
***Thyrotoxicosis
***[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
***Hyperparathyroidism
***[[Hyperparathyroidism]]
**Seizure (eg, temporal lobe, limbic)
**[[Seizure]] (eg, temporal lobe, limbic)
**Neoplasm (limbic system)
**[[CNS tumor]] (limbic system)
**Autoimmune Disease
**Autoimmune Disease
***Limbic encephalitis
***[[Limbic encephalitis]]
***Multiple sclerosis
***[[Multiple sclerosis]]
**Porphyria
**[[Porphyria]]
**Wilson’s disease
**[[Wilson's disease]]
**Huntington’s disease
**Huntington’s disease
**Sleep disorders
**Sleep disorders
**Vitamin deficiency
**[[Vitamin deficiencies]] (e.g. folate, B12, niacin, B6)
***Folate
**[[Delirium]]
***Vitamin B12
**[[Dementia]]
***Niacin
**[[Cerebrovascular accident]]
***Vitamin B6
**Vascular malformation (e.g. [[AVM]])
***[[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]]
**[[Hypothermia]] or [[hyperthermia]]
**Delirium
**[[Anemia]]
**Dementia
*Tox
**Cerebrovascular accident
**Vascular malformation
**Hypothermia or hyperthermia
**Anemia
*Drugs
**Adverse reaction to prescribed medication
**Adverse reaction to prescribed medication
**Alcohol (intoxication and withdrawal)
**[[Alcohol]] (intoxication and withdrawal)
**Amphetamines
**[[Amphetamines]]
**Cocaine
**[[Cocaine]]
**Sedative-hypnotics (intoxication or withdrawal)
**[[Sedative/Hypnotics]] (intoxication or withdrawal)
**Phencyclidine (PCP)
**[[Phencyclidine]] (PCP)
**Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
**[[Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)]]
**Anticholinergics
**[[Anticholinergics]]
**Aromatic hydrocarbons (eg, glue, paint, gasoline)
**Aromatic [[hydrocarbons]] (eg, glue, paint, gasoline)
**Steroids
**[[Steroids]]


==Evaluation==
==Evaluation==
*'''Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.'''
**Always obtain:
***Blood glucose
***Vitals, including pulse oximetry
**Consider:
***Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
***Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
***Ammonia level
***Urine analysis
***[[Lumbar puncture]] (CNS infection)
***Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
***Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
***[[Electrocardiogram]] (elders, intentional ingestion).
***Cranial imaging
***Electroencephalography
*'''Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.'''
**'''Organic cause unlikely''' → ''may not'' require further workup
***Younger than 40 years
***Prior psychiatric history
***Normal physical examination
****Normal vital signs
****Calm demeanor
****Normal orientation
****No physical complaints
**'''Organic cause more likely''' → ''does'' require further workup
***Acute onset of agitated behavior
***Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
***Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
***Elders (higher risk for delirium)
***History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
***Persistently abnormal vital signs
***Clouding of consciousness
***Focal neurologic findings


* '''Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.'''
==Management==
** Always obtain:
*** Blood glucose
*** Vitals, including pulse oximetry
** Consider:
*** Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
*** Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
*** Lumbar puncture (CNS infection)
*** Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
*** Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
*** Electrocardiogram (elders, intentional ingestion).
*** Cranial imaging
*** Electroencephalography
* '''Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.'''
** '''Organic cause unlikely''' → ''may not'' require further workup
*** Younger than 40 years
*** Prior psychiatric history
*** Normal physical examination
**** Normal vital signs
**** Calm demeanor
**** Normal orientation
**** No physical complaints
** '''Organic cause more likely''' → ''does'' require further workup
*** Acute onset of agitated behavior
*** Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
*** Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
*** Elders (higher risk for delirium)
*** History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
*** Persistently abnormal vital signs
*** Clouding of consciousness
*** Focal neurologic findings
 
== Management ==
 
=== Risk assessment ===
 
* Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
* '''Violence may occur without warning'''
* '''Be aware of surroundings'''
** Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
** Accessibility of door for escape
** Presence of objects that may be used as weapons
 
=== Verbal management techniques ===
 
* Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
** Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
** Possession of weapons
** History of violent behavior
** Current use of intoxicants
* Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
** Respond in a calm and soothing tone
* '''Three Fs framework''':
** I understand how you could '''feel''' that way.
** Others in that situation have '''felt''' that way, too.
** Most have '''found''' that _____ helps."
* '''Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension'''
* '''Do not ''threaten'' ''' to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
* '''Do not ''deceive'' ''' (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
* '''Do not ''command'' ''' to calm down — Invites further escalation
* '''Do not ''downplay'', ''deny'', or ''ignore'' '''threatening behavior
* '''Do not ''hesitate'' ''' — Leave and call for help if necessary


=== Physical restraints ===
===Risk assessment===
*Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
*'''Violence may occur without warning'''
*'''Be aware of surroundings'''
**Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
**Accessibility of door for escape
**Presence of objects that may be used as weapons


* '''Not for convenience or punishment'''
===Verbal de-escalation techniques===
* Indications for seclusion or restraint
*Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
** Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
**Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
** Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
**Possession of weapons
* Contraindications to seclusion
**History of violent behavior
** Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
**Current use of intoxicants
** Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
*Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
* Caveats
**Respond in a calm and soothing tone
** Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
**Express concern/worry about the patient
** Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position
*'''Three Fs framework''':
**I understand how you could '''feel''' that way.
**Others in that situation have '''felt''' that way, too.
**Most have '''found''' that _____ helps."
*'''Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension'''
*'''Do not ''threaten'' ''' to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
*'''Do not ''deceive'' ''' (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
*'''Do not ''command'' ''' to calm down — Invites further escalation
*'''Do not ''downplay'', ''deny'', or ''ignore'' '''threatening behavior
*'''Do not ''hesitate'' ''' — Leave and call for help if necessary


=== Chemical restraints ===
===Chemical Restraints (Rapid Tranquilization)===
*Offer voluntary administration to patient — increased sense of control may calm patient
*If need to temporary physical restraint the patient: One arm up, one arm down, tie legs to opposite side of bed. [https://emcrit.org/emcrit/human-bondage-chemical-takedown/ Reference with video]
*Suggested protocol for continued agitation: antipsychotic Q5 min x 2, then ketamine IM
**E.g. [[Droperidol]] 10mg (or [[haloperidol]] 5mg) IM Q5 min x 2, then [[ketamine]] 300mg IM
*[[Ketamine]], at a dose of 3-5 mg/kg IM, achieves sedation in 2-10 minutes. Few medications, if any, reliably achieve effective sedation this quickly following a single dose. <ref> Westafer, Lauren. “Patients with Severe Agitation in the ED.” ACEP NOW, vol. 42, no. 12, https://www.acepnow.com/article/which-sedatives-are-best-for-managing-severe-agitation-in-the-emergency-department/.</ref>.
*Other protocols involve combination therapy<ref>[http://www.emdocs.net/the-art-of-the-ed-takedown/ The Art of the ED Takedown EMDocs]</ref>.
*Neuroleptics ([[Antipsychotics]])
**Atypical antipsychotics
***Less sedation and [[EPS]] (than typical)
***Increased mortality in elderly with dementia-related psychosis
***[[olanzapine]], [[ziprasidone]], and [[aripiprazole]]
**Typical antipsychotics (low potency)
***Greater sedation, hypotension, anticholinergic effects (than high-potency)
***[[chlorpromazine]] and [[thioridazine]]
**Typical antipsychotics (medium potency)
***[[loxapine]] and [[molindone]]
**Typical antipsychotics (high potency)
***Greater [[EPS]] (than low-potency)
***[[butyrophenones]]: [[haloperidol]] and [[droperidol]]
**Cautions
***[[Neuroleptic malignant syndrome]] &mdash; rare
***[[Extrapyramidal symptoms]] &mdash; treat with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]]
***[[QTc prolongation]] and [[torsades de pointes]]
*[[Ketamine]]<ref>Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587</ref>
**4-6mg/kg IM or 1mg/kg IV
*[[Benzodiazepines]]
**''"There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.''<ref>Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587</ref>
**[[Lorazepam]] &mdash; Eliminated without active metabolites
***Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
***Duration: 6-8 H
**[[Midazolam]]
***Onset: 15 min (IM)
***Duration: 2 H
*Typical intramuscular dosing for adult patients:<ref>Klein LR, Driver BE, Miner JR, et al. Intramuscular Midazolam, Olanzapine, Ziprasidone, or Haloperidol for Treating Acute Agitation in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72(4):374-385.</ref>
**Haloperidol 5-10mg IM, ziprasidone 20mg IM, olanzapine 10mg IM, and midazolam 5mg IM.
***In order from slowest to quickest time to effect


* AKA: Rapid tranquilization
===Physical restraints===
* Offer voluntary administration to patient &mdash; increased sense of control may calm patient
*'''Not for convenience or punishment'''
* Benzodiazipines
*Indications for seclusion or restraint
** [[lorazepam]] &mdash; Eliminated without active metabolites
**Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
*** Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
**Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
*** Duration: 6-8 H
*Contraindications to seclusion
** [[midazolam]]
**Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
*** Onset: 15 min (IM)
**Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
*** Duration: 2 H
*Caveats
* Neuroleptics (Antipsychotics)
**Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
** [[Neuroleptic malignant syndrome]] &mdash; rare
**Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position
** [[Extrapyramidal symptoms]] &mdash; treat with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]]
** [[QTc prolongation]] and [[torsades de pointes]]
** Atypical antipsychotics
** Less sedation and [[EPS]] (than typical)
*** Increased mortality in elderly with dementia-related psychosis
*** [[olanzapine]], [[ziprasidone]], and [[aripiprazole]]
** Typical, low potency Antipsychotics
*** Greater sedation, hypotension, anticholinergic effects (than high-potency)
*** [[chlorpromazine]] and [[thioridazine]]
** Typical, medium potency
*** [[loxapine]] and [[molindone]]
** Typical, high potency
*** Greater [[EPS]] (than low-potency)
*** [[butyrophenones]]: [[haloperidol]] and [[droperidol]]


==Disposition==
==Disposition==
===Admit===
*Admit or commit when...
**Harm to self
**Harm to others
**Cannot care for self
**Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
**Intoxicated
**Psychotic
**Organic brain syndrome


* Admit or commit when...
===Discharge===
** Harm to self
*Consider discharge when...
** Harm to others
**Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
** Cannot care for self
**No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
** Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
**Patient is in control and no longer violent
** Intoxicated
** Psychotic
** Organic brain syndrome
* Consider discharge when...
** Temporary organic syndrome (eg, intoxication)
*** After appropriate observation and behavior disturbance has concluded
** No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
** Patient is in control and no longer violent
 
==External Links==


==See Also==
==See Also==
*[[Sedation (main)]]
*[[Altered mental status]]
*[[Altered mental status]]
*[[Excited delirium]]
*[[Excited delirium]]
*[[Acute psychosis]]
==External Links==
==Further Reading==
*Heiner JD and Moore GP.  The Combative Patient.  In: Marx J, Walls R, Hockberger R, eds.  Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice.  8th ed.  Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 2014: 188: 2414-2421.
*Moore GP, Pfaff JA.  [https://www.uptodate.com/contents/assessment-and-emergency-management-of-the-acutely-agitated-or-violent-adult Assessment and emergency management of the acutely agitated or violent adult].  UpToDate.  Feb 16, 2017.


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 19:49, 11 January 2024

Background

  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Positive predictors of violence
    • Male gender
    • History of violence
    • Substance abuse
    • Psychiatric illness
    • Increased waiting duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
  • Factors that do not predict violence
    • Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
    • Evaluation by psychiatrist, regardless of experience

Clinical Features

  • Escalation behaviors may include progression through:
    • Anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence

Differential Diagnosis

FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)

Evaluation

  • Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.
    • Always obtain:
      • Blood glucose
      • Vitals, including pulse oximetry
    • Consider:
      • Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
      • Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
      • Ammonia level
      • Urine analysis
      • Lumbar puncture (CNS infection)
      • Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
      • Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
      • Electrocardiogram (elders, intentional ingestion).
      • Cranial imaging
      • Electroencephalography
  • Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.
    • Organic cause unlikely → may not require further workup
      • Younger than 40 years
      • Prior psychiatric history
      • Normal physical examination
        • Normal vital signs
        • Calm demeanor
        • Normal orientation
        • No physical complaints
    • Organic cause more likely → does require further workup
      • Acute onset of agitated behavior
      • Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
      • Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
      • Elders (higher risk for delirium)
      • History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
      • Persistently abnormal vital signs
      • Clouding of consciousness
      • Focal neurologic findings

Management

Risk assessment

  • Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Be aware of surroundings
    • Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
    • Accessibility of door for escape
    • Presence of objects that may be used as weapons

Verbal de-escalation techniques

  • Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
    • Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
    • Possession of weapons
    • History of violent behavior
    • Current use of intoxicants
  • Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
    • Respond in a calm and soothing tone
    • Express concern/worry about the patient
  • Three Fs framework:
    • I understand how you could feel that way.
    • Others in that situation have felt that way, too.
    • Most have found that _____ helps."
  • Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension
  • Do not threaten to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
  • Do not deceive (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
  • Do not command to calm down — Invites further escalation
  • Do not downplay, deny, or ignore threatening behavior
  • Do not hesitate — Leave and call for help if necessary

Chemical Restraints (Rapid Tranquilization)

  • Offer voluntary administration to patient — increased sense of control may calm patient
  • If need to temporary physical restraint the patient: One arm up, one arm down, tie legs to opposite side of bed. Reference with video
  • Suggested protocol for continued agitation: antipsychotic Q5 min x 2, then ketamine IM
  • Ketamine, at a dose of 3-5 mg/kg IM, achieves sedation in 2-10 minutes. Few medications, if any, reliably achieve effective sedation this quickly following a single dose. [1].
  • Other protocols involve combination therapy[2].
  • Neuroleptics (Antipsychotics)
  • Ketamine[3]
    • 4-6mg/kg IM or 1mg/kg IV
  • Benzodiazepines
    • "There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.[4]
    • Lorazepam — Eliminated without active metabolites
      • Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
      • Duration: 6-8 H
    • Midazolam
      • Onset: 15 min (IM)
      • Duration: 2 H
  • Typical intramuscular dosing for adult patients:[5]
    • Haloperidol 5-10mg IM, ziprasidone 20mg IM, olanzapine 10mg IM, and midazolam 5mg IM.
      • In order from slowest to quickest time to effect

Physical restraints

  • Not for convenience or punishment
  • Indications for seclusion or restraint
    • Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
    • Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
  • Contraindications to seclusion
    • Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
    • Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
  • Caveats
    • Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
    • Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position

Disposition

Admit

  • Admit or commit when...
    • Harm to self
    • Harm to others
    • Cannot care for self
    • Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
    • Intoxicated
    • Psychotic
    • Organic brain syndrome

Discharge

  • Consider discharge when...
    • Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
    • No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
    • Patient is in control and no longer violent

See Also

External Links

Further Reading

References

  1. ↑ Westafer, Lauren. “Patients with Severe Agitation in the ED.” ACEP NOW, vol. 42, no. 12, https://www.acepnow.com/article/which-sedatives-are-best-for-managing-severe-agitation-in-the-emergency-department/.
  2. ↑ The Art of the ED Takedown EMDocs
  3. ↑ Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  4. ↑ Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  5. ↑ Klein LR, Driver BE, Miner JR, et al. Intramuscular Midazolam, Olanzapine, Ziprasidone, or Haloperidol for Treating Acute Agitation in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72(4):374-385.
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